Vinnez – June 2011

Wine Prices: Beer Drinkers Pay Attention

Although it has been more than 77 years since the end of the great noble experiment – Prohibition – we continue to pay the price for that misguided policy. The passage of the 21st Amendment repealing Prohibition led to a cumbersome, inefficient marketplace for the sale of alcoholic beverages. When we purchase wine or beer at our local retail shop, about 50% of the price we pay goes to parties other than the producer of the beverage.

For that $20 bottle of wine, $10 is split between the distributor and the retail shop. For that $8 six pack of microbrew, $4 is shared by the distributor and retail store. Is the contribution of these two legally mandated intermediaries to the consumer experience really worth half the price we pay for the product?

Presumably this three-tier system – producer, distributor, retail (includes restaurants, bars, shops) – was established to better manage access to alcoholic beverages after the wild events associated with the illegal sales of alcohol during the 13 years of Prohibition. This three-tier system curiously looks similar to the model used by organized crime syndicates – producer, organized crime distributor, retail – to illegally supply alcoholic beverages to speakeasies and other establishments during Prohibition.

While the usefulness of this three-tier system may have made sense in 1933 when distributors provided valuable information about available products and helped promote them, it does not in the 21st century. Access to product information via the Internet is much more complete and comprehensive than anything a single distributor can provide.

If computer manufacturers do not need state-based distributors to manage consumer access to their highly complex products, why do alcoholic beverage producers need distributors to help consumers choose their alcoholic beverages? Perhaps the millions of dollars contributed each year by beverage distributors and their trade associations to both federal and state legislator campaigns explains the strong support for the current system.

For example, in the state of Texas just two distributors control more than 90% of all alcoholic beverages sold in the state. These two companies contribute millions of dollars to the political campaigns of dozens of key legislators in the state. Is it a surprise this expensive, inefficient three-tier system continues?

If you want to learn more about this issue, listen to an excellent Grape Radio podcast on the subject featuring David White, an expert on the subject. In the meantime, you can help lower the cost of beer and wine by fighting for the repeal of the three-tier system while supporting all efforts that allow producers to sell directly to consumers.

Fight H.R.1161 which will essentially prohibit interstate wine shipping, overriding the laws of a majority of states while clearly violating the Commerce Clause of the Constitution.

If wine and beer consumers got together on this issue, perhaps we can free the grapes and the barley.

Sincerely,

Barry P. Chaiken, Proprietor
Chaiken Vineyards

info@chaikenvineyards.com
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Blending and Finishing the Wine

Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in order to achieve the desired taste. The winemaker can correct perceived inadequacies by mixing wines from different grapes and batches that were produced under different conditions. These adjustments can be as simple as adjusting acid or tannin levels, to as complex as blending different varieties or vintages to achieve a consistent taste.

Fining agents are used during winemaking to remove tannins, reduce astringency and remove microscopic particles that could cloud the wines. The winemakers decide on which fining agents are used and these may vary from product to product and even batch to batch (usually depending on the grapes of that particular year).

Gelatin has been used in winemaking for centuries and is recognized as a traditional method for wine fining, or clarifying. It is also the most commonly used agent to reduce the tannin content. Generally no gelatin remains in the wine because it reacts with the wine components, as it clarifies, and forms a sediment which is removed by filtration prior to bottling.

Besides gelatin, other fining agents for wine are often derived from animal and fish products, such as micronized potassium casseinate (casein is milk protein), egg whites, egg albumin, bone char, bull‘s blood, isinglass (Sturgeon bladder), PVPP (a synthetic compound), lysozyme, and skim milk powder. Some aromatized wines contain honey or egg-yolk extract.

Non-animal-based filtering agents are also often used, such as bentonite (a volcanic clay-based filter), diatomaceous earth, cellulose pads, paper filters and membrane filters (thin films of plastic polymer material having uniformly sized holes).

Preservatives

The most common preservative used in winemaking is sulfur dioxide, achieved by adding sodium or potassium metabisulphite. Another useful preservative is potassium sorbate.

Sulfur dioxide has two primary actions, firstly it is an anti microbial agent and secondly an anti oxidant. In the making of white wine it can be added prior to fermentation and immediately after alcoholic fermentation is complete. If added after alcoholic ferment it will have the effect of preventing or stopping malolactic fermentation, bacterial spoilage and help protect against the damaging effects of oxygen. Additions of up to 100 mg per liter (of sulfur dioxide) can be added, but the available or free sulfur dioxide should be measured by the aspiration method and adjusted to 30 mg per liter. Available sulfur dioxide should be maintained at this level until bottling. For rose wines smaller additions should be made and the available level should be no more than 30 mg per liter.

In the making of red wine sulfur dioxide may be used at high levels (100 mg per liter) prior to ferment to assist stabilize color otherwise it is used at the end of malolactic ferment and performs the same functions as in white wine. However, small additions (say 20 mg per liter) should be used to avoid bleaching red pigments and the maintenance level should be about 20 mg per liter.

Furthermore, small additions (say 20 mg per liter) may be made to red wine after alcoholic ferment and before malolactic ferment to overcome minor oxidation and prevent the growth of acetic acid bacteria.

Without the use of sulfur dioxide, wines can readily suffer bacterial spoilage no matter how hygienic the winemaking practice.

Potassium sorbate is effective for the control of fungal growth, including yeast, especially for sweet wines in bottle. However, one potential hazard is the metabolism of sorbate to geraniol a potent and very unpleasant by-product. To avoid this, either the wine must be sterile bottled or contain enough sulfur dioxide to inhibit the growth of bacteria. Sterile bottling includes the use of filtration.

Filtration

Filtration in winemaking is used to accomplish two objectives, clarification and microbial stabilization. In clarification, large particles that affect the visual appearance of the wine are removed. In microbial stabilization, organisms that affect the stability of the wine are removed therefore reducing the likelihood of re-fermentation or spoilage.

The process of clarification is concerned with the removal of particles; those larger than 5-10 micrometers for coarse polishing, particles larger than 1-4 micrometers for clarifying or polishing. Microbial stabilization requires a filtration of at least 0.65 micrometers. However, filtration at this level may lighten a wines color and body. Microbial stabilization does not imply sterility. It simply means that a significant amount of yeast and bacteria have been removed.

Bottling

A final dose of sulfite is added to help preserve the wine and prevent unwanted fermentation in the bottle. The wine bottles then are traditionally sealed with a cork, although alternative wine closures such as synthetic corks and screwcaps, which are less subject to cork taint, are becoming increasingly popular. The final step is adding a capsule to the top of the bottle which is then heated for a tight seal.

Winemakers

Traditionally known as a vintner, a winemaker is a person engaged in making wine. They are generally employed by wineries or wine companies.

Source: Wikipedia

Photos courtesy of Michael Evans, CEO, Vines of Mendoza.

Vinnez – May 2011

Chill Out

When I first began purchasing wine for future consumption – I do not like to call it collecting as that implies I purchase it to sell at a future time or admire in a trophy case – I worried terribly about keeping the wine at the correct temperature and humidity. I falsely believed that storing wine at a temperature other than 55° F and within a humidity range of 50-70% quickly destroyed the wine, forever robbing me of the chance to truly experience its loveliness.

As Colonel Potter said, “Horse hockey!”

There is no conclusive scientific evidence proving that 55° F is the perfect temperature for storing wines. It is no coincidence that a cave has a natural temperature of 55° F. Without the benefit of air-conditioning, those early collectors stored their wine in earthen cellars and caves recognizing that exposing the wine to high summer temperatures spoiled it.

Although there is little research on the perfect conditions to store wine – it might take decades to compare different methods of storage since we want to compare them over long periods of time – we can make some basic assumptions based upon what we know about organic chemistry. Wine is, after all, a mixture of a large number of organic compounds that undergo numerous chemical reactions during their life in a wine bottle. Scientists know that almost all reactions accelerate at higher temperatures. Therefore, the chemical reactions within the wine bottle speed up at higher temperatures.

In addition, scientists know that as temperatures approach 90° F, the structure of the chemical compounds within the wine can break down (think heating egg whites). So the perfect temperature for storing wine is one where it is warm enough for the reactions that mature a wine to proceed, but not too warm where the compounds that are key to the wine’s maturity do not break apart. I would guess somewhere between 50° F and 75° F is a pretty safe range. 

But wait, there must be a reason to keep wine at some “perfect” temperature within that range. Yes, there is and that has to do more with your inclination to drinkt it or sell it. If you are in your 20s, keep your wine storage at 55° F as waiting a few decades to drink a special Bordeaux is no big deal. If you are a bit older and want to enjoy the wine before your taste buds or you burn out, storing it at 65° F or so might be a better bet as it will mature faster.  

If you intend to sell your wine at some future time, storing it in the “perfect” environment is critical to obtain the best price for the wine. Wine provenance – the history of ownership and storage of the wine – determines how buyers value wine for sale. Although there is no proof that 55° F is the right storage temperature, it is the de facto standard in the trade. 

For the rest of us, just keep your wine below 75° F, protect it from light and avoid sudden temperature swings. I bet right now that space in the corner closet is looking like a pretty inexpensive wine cellar. Good thinking!!

Sincerely,

Barry P. Chaiken, Proprietor
Chaiken Vineyards

info@chaikenvineyards.com
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Ensuring Purity and Quality

Whether the wine is aging in tanks or barrels, tests are run periodically in a laboratory to check the status of the wine. Common tests include °Brix, pH, titratable acidity, residual sugar, free or available sulfur, total sulfur, volatile acidity and percent alcohol. Additional tests include those for the crystallization of cream of tartar (potassium hydrogen tartrate) and the precipitation of heat unstable protein; this last test is limited to white wines.

These tests are often performed throughout the making of the wine as well as prior to bottling. In response to the results of these tests, a winemaker can then decide on appropriate remedial action, for example the addition of more sulfur dioxide. Sensory tests will also be performed and again in response to these a wine maker may take remedial action such as the addition of a protein to soften the taste of the wine.

Brix

°Brix is one measure of the soluble solids in the grape juice and represents not only the sugars but also includes many other soluble substances such as salts, acids and tannins, sometimes called Total Soluble Solids (TSS). However, sugar is by far the compound in greatest quantity and so for all practical purposes these units are a measure of sugar level. The level of sugar in the grapes is important not only because it will determine the final alcohol content of the wine, but also because it is an indirect index of grape maturity. Brix (Bx for short) is measured in grams per hundred grams of solution, so 20 Bx means that 100 grams of juice contains 20gm of dissolved compounds.

There are other common measures of sugar content of grapes, Specific gravity, Oechsle (Germany) and Beaume (France). The French Baumé (Be° or Bé° for short) has the benefit that one Be° gives approximately one percent alcohol. Also one Be° is equal to 1.8 Brix, that is 1.8 grams of sugar per one hundred grams. This helps with deciding how much sugar to add if the juice is low in sugar: to achieve one percent alcohol add 1.8 grams per 100 ml or 18 grams per liter. This process is called chaptalization and is illegal in some countries (but perfectly acceptable for the home winemaker.) Generally, for the making of dry table wines a Bx of between 20 and 25 is desirable (equivalent to Be° of 11 to 14.)

A Brix test can be run either in the lab or in the field for a quick reference number to see what the sugar content is. Brix is usually measured with a refractometer while the other methods use a hydrometer. Generally, hydrometers are a cheaper alternative. For more accurate use of sugar measurement it should be remembered that all measurements are affected by the temperature at which the reading is made. Suppliers of equipment generally will supply correction charts.

Volatile Acidity

Volatile acidity test verifies if there is any steam distillable acids in the wine. Mainly present is acetic acid but lactic, butyric, propionic and formic acids can also be found. Usually the test checks for these acids in a cash still, but there are new methods available such as HPLC, gas chromatography and enzymatic methods. The amount of volatile acidity found in sound grapes is negligible, since it is a by-product of microbial metabolism. It’s important to remember that acetic acid bacteria require oxygen to grow. Eliminating any air in wine containers as well as a sulfur dioxide addition will limit their growth. Rejecting moldy grapes will also prevent possible problems associated with acetic acid bacteria. Use of sulfur dioxide and inoculation with a low-V.A. producing strain of Saccharomyces may deter acetic acid producing yeast. A relatively new method for removal of volatile acidity from a wine is reverse osmosis. Blending may also help-a wine with high V.A. can be filtered (to remove the microbe responsible) and blended with a low V.A. wine, so that the acetic acid level is below the sensory threshold.

To be continued in the next issue….

Source: Wikipedia

Vinnez – April 2011

Traveling With Wine

Many of us find some great wines during our travels. Whether drinking Brunello in Tuscany, sipping Riesling in Alsace, or tasting Pinot Noir in the Russian River Valley, we all have the urge to bring some of that wine back home. Traveling with wine, particularly by airplane, can be confusing if you do not know the rules. After almost 20 years of carrying wine back by air from places as far away as the Hunter Valley in Australia, I learned a few do’s and don’ts to get wine safely back home.

The first concern is the shipping container. The shipper, usually a cardboard box, has either Styrofoam or molded cardboard inserts that hold and cushion the wine bottles. Most shippers hold 12 750 ml bottles of wine although there are shippers that protect larger size bottles. When filled with standard weight bottles, the entire package weighs less than 45 lbs., thereby qualifying as standard luggage on many airlines. On most of my trips, I bring several of these empty shippers along with me, expecting to carry them back full. If you do not have extra shippers at home or want to avoid any extra baggage charges on your outbound flight, these shippers are available from many shops located in wine tourism areas. Shippers cost from $10-$25 and are reusable as long as the cushioning material is intact.

The FAA sets the rules for shipping wine on airplanes. As a non-flammable substance, wine is not considered dangerous cargo and therefore quantities are not limited. As long as the wine is in a proper shipper that prevents breakage, it is fine to check it in as personal baggage. When checking in your shipper as baggage, be sure to have the agent place stickers on the container that say it is luggage. This way your wine will travel with your other luggage to the baggage claim area rather than to the freight dock.

If returning from travel abroad, your wine must pass through customs at the airport. Most customs agents are not well versed on what to do with wine. Surely a few bottles are O.K. A few cases often confuse them, so do not be surprised if you are sent off to Agriculture for inspection. Bringing wine into the U.S. is perfectly legal. At worst, there is a small 3% duty on the value of the wine before you are sent on your way. Most times the agents do not bother collecting the duty as the amount is so small it is not worth their time to do the paperwork.

Never lie about the amount of wine you are bringing with you. If you do and are discovered, the customs folks can confiscate your wine and slap you with a hefty fine. Also, be sure to say the wine is for your personal consumption, will be consumed at home, and will not be passed on as a gift.

Following these simple rules can bring some fantastic wines from around the world back home. You then can relive that Tuscan sun on your cheeks by uncorking that over-the-top Brunello you brought back from Montalcino last summer.

Sincerely,

Barry P. Chaiken, Proprietor
Chaiken Vineyards

info@chaikenvineyards.com
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Finishing the Wine

Cold stabilization is a process used in winemaking to reduce tartrate crystals (generally potassium bitartrate) in wine. These tartrate crystals look like grains of clear sand, and are also known as “wine crystals” or “wine diamonds.” They are formed by the union of tartaric acid and potassium, and may appear to be sediment in the wine, though they are not. During the cold stabilizing process after fermentation, the temperature of the wine is dropped to close to freezing for 1-2 weeks. This will cause the crystals to separate from the wine and stick to the sides of the holding vessel. When the wine is drained from the vessels, the tartrates are left behind. They may also form in wine bottles that have been stored under very cold conditions.

During “heat stabilization,” unstable proteins are removed by adsorption onto bentonite, preventing them from precipitating in the bottled wine.

During the secondary fermentation and aging process, which takes three to six months, the fermentation continues very slowly. The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the wine from oxidation. Proteins from the grape are broken down and the remaining yeast cells and other fine particles from the grapes are allowed to settle. Potassium bitartrate will also precipitate, a process which can be enhanced by cold stabilization to prevent the appearance of (harmless) tartrate crystals after bottling. The result of these processes is that the originally cloudy wine becomes clear. The wine can be racked during this process to remove the lees.

The secondary fermentation usually takes place in either large stainless steel vessels with a volume of several cubic meters, or oak barrels, depending on the goals of the winemakers. Unoaked wine is fermented in a barrel made of stainless steel or other material having no influence in the final taste of the wine. Depending on the desired taste, it could be fermented mainly in stainless steel to be briefly put in oak, or have the complete fermentation done in stainless steel. Oak could be added as chips used with a non-wooden barrel instead of a fully wooden barrel. This process is mainly used in cheaper wine.

Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys in the production of their wine; these vessels (sometimes called demijohns) have a capacity of 4.5 to 54 liters (1.2-14.3 US gallons). The kind of vessel used depends on the amount of wine that is being made, the grapes being used, and the intentions of the winemaker.

Malolactic Fermentation

Malolactic fermentation occurs when lactic acid bacteria metabolize malic acid and produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide. This is carried out either as an intentional procedure in which specially cultivated strains of such bacteria are introduced into the maturing wine, or it can happen by chance if uncultivated lactic acid bacteria are present.

Malolactic fermentation can improve the taste of wine that has high levels of malic acid, because malic acid in higher concentration generally causes an often unpleasant harsh and bitter taste sensation, whereas lactic acid is perceived as more gentle and less sour. The process is used in most red wines and is discretionary for white wines.

To be continued in the next issue….

Source: Wikipedia

Vinnez – March 2011

Choosing Wine by Reading the Label

With so many wines to choose from in most wine shops, it is difficult to know which of the wines available you will enjoy. Market research shows that attractive wine packaging, just like for other consumer goods, can help boost sales. For many years “critter” wine labels – those with the cute animals on the label – were successful in attracting buyers to inexpensive wines from Australia. 
 

For those of us who are more interested in choosing a wine that will be attractive to our taste buds rather than our eyes, reviewing some basic information on the label can help intelligently guide our choices. Although some wine labels may appear to provide rather limited information about the wine, there is almost always enough information available to guide us.

When first approaching a wine, look at the alcohol content. Red wines with high alcohol content (14.5-16%+) tend to be big, powerful, flavorful wines that are perfect for drinking alone or with very flavorful foods (e.g., rich, juicy steak). Lower alcohol red wines are more elegant and subtle in their flavors, thereby drinking best only when paired with appropriate foods.

For white wines, a lower alcohol content (e.g., 9-12%) usually indicates a high level of residual sugar seen in sweet wines. Very high alcohol white wines (e.g., 14%+) may indicate a dry wine that is out of balance as white wines generally do not have the strength of flavors, acidity, and tannins to counter the alcohol.

The type of varietal considered with the region the wine comes from gives a sense of what flavors can be expected from the wine. If there is a wine you currently like, then choose a wine made from a similar varietal (e.g., pinot noir) and the same region (e.g., Russian River Valley, CA) made by another producer. Most likely you will like this new wine while also learning from the differences you detect comparing the wines. 

Other information such as types of barrels used (e.g., French vs. American oak, new vs. 2nd use), time in barrel, and bottle aging, all give you more information about the wine. As you drink more wine and relate the information you read on the label with the flavors in the wine, you will develop an internal guidebook that can help you choose wine in a liquor store or restaurant.

Although reviews and scores are useful in choosing a fine, the best guide is your own drinking  experience. No one is a better critic of what you may like than you are.

Sincerely,

Barry P. Chaiken, Proprietor
Chaiken Vineyards

info@chaikenvineyards.com
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Striving For Excellence

Most red wines derive their color from grape skins (the exception being varieties or hybrids of non-vinifera vines which contain juice pigmented with the dark Malvidin 3,5-diglucoside anthocyanin) and therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color extraction. Red wines are produced by destemming and crushing the grapes into a tank and leaving the skins in contact with the juice throughout the fermentation (maceration). It is possible to produce white (colorless) wines from red grapes by the fastidious pressing of uncrushed fruit.  This minimizes contact between grape juice and skins (as in the making of Blanc de noirs sparkling wine, which is derived from Pinot Noir, a red vinifera grape.)

Most white wines are processed without destemming or crushing and are transferred from picking bins directly to the press. This is to avoid any extraction of tannin from either the skins or grapeseeds, as well as maintaining proper juice flow through a matrix of grape clusters rather than loose berries.

In some circumstances winemakers choose to crush white grapes for a short period of skin contact, usually for three to 24 hours. This serves to extract flavor and tannin from the skins (the tannin being extracted to encourage protein precipitation without excessive Bentonite addition) as well as Potassium ions, which participate in bitartrate precipitation (cream of tartar). It also results in an increase in the pH of the juice which may be desirable for overly acidic grapes. This was a practice more common in the 1970s than today, though still practiced by some Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay producers in California.

In the case of rosé wines, the fruit is crushed and the dark skins are left in contact with the juice just long enough to extract the color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and fermentation continues as if the wine maker was making a white wine.

Pressing

Pressing is the act of applying pressure to grapes or pomace in order to separate juice or wine from grapes and grape skins. Pressing is not always a necessary act in winemaking; if grapes are crushed there is a considerable amount of juice immediately liberated (called free-run juice) that can be used for vinification. Typically this free-run juice is of a higher quality than the press juice. However, most wineries do use presses in order to increase their production (gallons) per ton, as pressed juice can represent between 15%-30% of the total juice volume from the grape.

Presses act by positioning the grape skins or whole grape clusters between a rigid surface and a moveable surface and slowly decrease the volume between the two surfaces. Modern presses dictate the duration and pressure at each press cycle, usually ramping from 0 Bar to 2.0 Bar. Sometimes winemakers choose pressures which separate the streams of pressed juice, called making “press cuts.” As the pressure increases the amount of tannin extracted from the skins into the juice increases, often rendering the pressed juice excessively tannic or harsh. Because of the location of grape juice constituents in the berry (water and acid are found primarily in the mesocarp or pulp, whereas tannins are found primarily in the pericarp, or skin, and seeds), pressed juice or wine tends to be lower in acidity with a higher pH than the free-run juice.

Before the advent of modern winemaking, most presses were basket presses made of wood and operated manually. Basket presses are composed of a cylinder of wooden slats on top of a fixed plate, with a moveable plate that can be forced downward (usually by a central ratcheting threaded screw.) The press operator would load the grapes or pomace into the wooden cylinder, put the top plate in place and lower it until juice flowed from the wooden slats. As the juice flow decreased, the plate was ratcheted down again. This process continued until the press operator determined that the quality of the pressed juice or wine was below standard, or all liquids had been pressed.

Since the early 1990s, modern mechanical basket presses have been revived through higher-end producers seeking to replicate the gentle pressing of the historical basket presses. Because basket presses have a relatively compact design, the press cake offers a relatively longer pathway for the juice to travel before leaving the press. It is believed by advocates of basket presses that this relatively long pathway through the grape or pomace cake serves as a filter to solids that would otherwise affect the quality of the press juice.

With red wines, the must is pressed after primary fermentation, which separates the skins and other solid matter from the liquid. With white wine, the liquid is separated from the must before fermentation . With rose, the skins may be kept in contact for a shorter period to give color to the wine, in that case the must may be pressed as well. After a period in which the wine stands or ages, the wine is separated from the dead yeast and any solids that remained (called lees), and transferred to a new container where any additional fermentation may take place.

Pigeage is a French winemaking term for the traditional stomping of grapes in open fermentation tanks. To make certain types of wine, grapes are put through a crusher and then poured into open fermentation tanks. Once fermentation begins, the grape skins are pushed to the surface by carbon dioxide gases released in the fermentation process. This layer of skins and other solids is known as the cap. As the skins are the source of the tannins, the cap needs to be mixed through the liquid each day, or “punched,” which traditionally is done by stomping through the vat. 

To be continued in the next issue….

 Source: Wikipedia

Vinnez – February 2011

Thank You Mother Nature

You never know what to expect when you first taste your wines from the barrel. Will the fruit flavors be there? What about the oak? Too much? Too little? How are the tannins? And when it is your first vintage you are more than a little bit nervous.

So as I prepared myself for the first tasting of the barrels at 10:30 that Monday morning in January down in the Valle de Uco, I worked to temper my excitement with a dose of reality. After all, the vines were just three years old. We managed them for the future, guiding them to develop the strong root structure and shape to produce blockbuster wines in the future, not today. Our grapes were secondary as the plant’s health is primary the first five vineyard years.
As for the terroir, it was virgin, never before used for cultivating anything but tumble weeds. Asked to deliver nourishment to grapes and make them special so early in its management was too much to ask. Yet, sometimes when you focus on doing all the right things, Nature rewards you with a surprise that simply brings joy.

The wines are superb!! During two blending sessions I tasted each of my four varietals: Malbec, Syrah, Cabernet Franc, and Cabernet Sauvignon. The wines were fresh, clean, had great structure, and offered up infinite blending possibilities. In addition, the use of several types of barrels (new and 2nd use oak plus two different barrel manufacturers) helped offer up this flexibility in putting together the wines.

All of my varietal wines contain small amounts of one or more of the other varietals, but no more than 15% in total as supporting varietals. These other varietals provide additional complexity and elegance to the wines. My Generaciones Corte is my true blend (Corte means cut or wine blend in Spanish) and is dominated by Malbec and Cabernet Franc, but also includes small amounts of Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah.

After putting together the final blends I calculated the exact liters of each varietal that was required in each blending tank to produce each completed wine. I then assisted the cellar team in building the blends by racking the wines according to the specifications into the blending tanks, followed the next day by putting the wine back in the designated barrels after their cleaning.

Now, all that remains is a bit of waiting. The newly blended varietals that form the wine will make friends with their varietal “cousins” and their new barrel home, building complexity all along the way. Sometime in May the wines will be racked into tanks for bottling with arrival in the U.S. sometime this Fall.

I can’t wait!!

Sincerely,
Barry P. Chaiken, Proprietor
Chaiken Vineyards

info@chaikenvineyards.com
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Choose Only the Best

Harvest is the picking of the grapes and in many ways the first step in wine production. Grapes are either harvested mechanically or by hand. The decision to harvest grapes is typically made by the winemaker and informed by the level of sugar (called Brix), acid (TA or Titratable Acidity as expressed by tartaric acid equivalents) and pH of the grapes. Other considerations include phenological ripeness, berry flavor, tannin development (seed color and taste). Overall disposition of the grapevine and weather forecasts are taken into account.

Grape clusters are fed into the machine, where they are first crushed, then destemmed. Stems exit at the end, while juice, skins, seeds, and some debris exit the bottom. Mechanical harvesters are large tractors that straddle grapevine trellises and, using firm plastic or rubber rods, strike the fruiting zone of the grapevine to dislodge the grapes from the rachis.

(Note: All Chaiken Vineyards grapes are hand picked and sorted twice, first by grape cluster and then by berry. After destemming, fermentation is of whole berries as we do not crush our grapes. We belive this produces a much higher quality wine by reducing the amount of unwanted flavors released by crushed seeds.)

Mechanical harvesters have the advantage of being able to cover a large area of vineyard land in a relatively short period of time, and with a minimum investment of manpower per harvested ton. A disadvantage of mechanical harvesting is the indiscriminate inclusion of foreign non-grape material in the product, especially leaf stems and leaves, but also, depending on the trellis system and grapevine canopy management, may include moldy grapes, canes, metal debris, rocks and even small animals and bird nests. Some winemakers remove leaves and loose debris from the grapevine before mechanical harvesting to avoid such material being included in the harvested fruit.

In the United States mechanical harvesting is seldom used for premium winemaking because of the indiscriminate picking and increased oxidation of the grape juice. In other countries (such as Australia and New Zealand), mechanical harvesting of premium winegrapes is more common because of general labor shortages.

In the United States, grapes are traditionally picked into 30 pound boxes, and in many cases these boxes are consolidated into ½ ton bins or two-ton bins for transport to the winery. Manual harvesting has the advantage of using knowledgeable labor to not only pick the ripe clusters but also to leave behind the clusters that are not ripe or contain bunch rot or other defects. This can be an effective first line of defense to prevent inferior quality fruit from contaminating a lot or tank of wine.

Paddles above the small circular slots rotate to remove the larger chunks of stems. Grapes are pulled off the stems and fall through the holes. Some small amount of stem particles are usually desired to be kept with the grapes for tannin structure.

Destemming is the process of separating stems from the grapes. Depending on the winemaking procedure, this process may be undertaken before crushing with the purpose of lowering the development of tannins and vegetal flavors in the resulting wine. Single berry harvesting, like what is done with some German Trockenbeerenauslese, avoids this step altogether with the grapes being individually selected.

Crushing

Crushing is the process of gently squeezing the berries and breaking the skins to start to liberate the contents of the berries. Desteming is the process of removing the grapes from the rachis (the stem which holds the grapes). In traditional and smaller-scale wine making, the harvested grapes are sometimes crushed by trampling them barefoot or by the use of inexpensive small scale crushers. These can also destem at the same time. However, in larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer is used.

The decision about desteming is different for red and white wine making. Generally when making white wine the fruit is only crushed, the stems are then placed in the press with the berries. The presence of stems in the mix facilitates pressing by allowing juice to flow past flattened skins. These accumulate at the edge of the press.

For red winemaking, stems of the grapes are usually removed before fermentation since the stems have a relatively high tannin content; in addition to tannin they can also give the wine a vegetal aroma (due to extraction of 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine which has an aroma reminiscent of green bell peppers.) On occasion, the winemaker may decide to leave them in if the grapes themselves contain less tannin than desired. This is more acceptable if the stems have ‘ripened’ and started to turn brown.

If increased skin extraction is desired, a winemaker might choose to crush the grapes after destemming. Removal of stems first means no stem tannin can be extracted. In these cases the grapes pass between two rollers which squeeze the grapes enough to separate the skin and pulp, but not so much as to cause excessive shearing or tearing of the skin tissues. In some cases, notably with “delicate” red varietals such as Pinot noir or Syrah, all or part of the grapes might be left uncrushed (called “whole berry”) to encourage the retention of fruity aromas through partial carbonic maceration.

To be continued in the next issue…

Source: Wikipedia

Vinnez – January 2011

Blending But Not Breaking

“If you over analyze it, you’ll ruin it. Go with your gut reaction, and it will be fine.” This is just one of many pieces of wise advice I received from friends who are winemakers. As I prepare to put together the 2010 vintage during several blending sessions this week in Argentina, I am trying to focus on the vision I have for each wine. I must imagine the characteristics of the young wine within each barrel integrating together and maturing into a fabulous experience for anyone who pulls a cork.

My Generaciones Corte is created by mixing together two or more wine varietals to form the blend. As for my single varietal wines – Malbec, Syrah, and Cabernet Franc – they also require a degree of blending of wines to create the final wine. Argentine wine law states that wines designated as a single varietal must have at least 85% of the wine made from that varietal.

Few wines are made entirely from a single grape varietal. Winemakers always add a few percent of one or more single varietal wines to add characteristics to the wine. For example, when I produced as part of a demonstration project my first barrel of wine in 2007, I added 15% Petit Verdot to a blend of Malbec, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon. I particularly chose the Petit Verdot because of the wonderful aromas the wine showed in the glass. It was like sticking your nose in a patch of violets.

When I tasted the blend about two years after harvest, the wine expressed the aroma of those wonderful violets. I then knew that my choice for the blend was correct. Now almost four years after harvest, the wine tastes even better with the Petit Verdot adding a special nuance to a wine that is tremendously elegant and complex. I am thrilled how it turned out and my friends seem to agree.

As I prepare to taste each barrel – the wine in each barrel will vary somewhat due to the unique characteristics of the oak – I will look to identify what I like about each barrel of wine. Then, like putting together a big jigsaw puzzle, I will mix and match the barrels and varietals to produce the best wines. Each varietal can be enhanced by adding a small amount of other varietals. Although I cannot predict what the end result will be after my blending sessions are completed, I do know my grapes were excellent at harvest, I used the best barrels for aging the wine, and I’ll let instinct be my guide.

It worked before.

Sincerely, 

Barry P. Chaiken, Proprietor
Chaiken Vineyards
info@chaikenvineyards.com
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Start With Great Grapes

Winemaking, or vinification, is the production of wine, starting with selection of the grapes or other produce and ending with bottling the finished wine. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from other fruit or non-toxic plant material. Mead is a wine that is made with honey being the primary ingredient after water.

Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still wine production (without carbonation) and sparkling wine production (with carbonation).

The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology (in American English, enology) and the oldest known winemaking operation, estimated to be 6,100 years old, was discovered in a cave in Armenia.

The Grapes

The quality of the grapes determines the quality of the wine more than any other factor. Grape quality is affected by variety as well as weather during the growing season, soil minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning method. The combination of these effects is often referred to as the grape’s terroir.
 
Grapes are usually harvested from the vineyard from early September until early November in the northern hemisphere, and mid February until early March in the southern hemisphere. In some cool areas in the southern hemisphere, for example Tasmania, harvesting extends into May. The most common species of wine grape is Vitis vinifera, which includes nearly all varieties of European origin.

Process

After the harvest, the grapes are taken into a winery and prepared for primary ferment, at this stage red wine making diverges from white wine making. Red wine is made from the must (pulp) of red or black grapes that undergo fermentation together with the grape skins. White wine is made by fermenting juice which is made by pressing crushed grapes to extract a juice; the skins are removed and play no further role. Occasionally white wine is made from red grapes, this is done by extracting their juice with minimal contact with the grapes’ skins. Rosé wines are either made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color (blanc de noir) or by blending red wine and white wine. White and rosé wines extract little of the tannins contained in the skins.

To start primary fermentation, yeast is added to the must for red wine or juice for white wine. During this fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks, the yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol(alcohol) and carbon dioxide with the carbon dioxide is lost to the atmosphere. After the primary fermentation of red grapes, the free run wine is pumped off into tanks and the skins are pressed to extract the remaining juice and wine. The press wine is blended with the free run wine at the winemaker’s discretion. The wine is kept warm with the remaining sugars converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 
The next process in the making of red wine is secondary fermentation. This is a bacterial fermentation which converts malic acid to lactic acid. This process decreases the acid in the wine and softens the taste of the wine. Red wine is sometimes transferred to oak barrels to mature for a period of weeks or months. This practice imparts oak aromas to the wine. The wine must be settled or clarified and adjustments made prior to filtration and bottling.
 
The time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to over twenty years for top wines. However, only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine will taste better after five years than it will after just one year. Depending on the quality of grape and the target wine style, some of these steps may be combined or omitted to achieve the particular goals of the winemaker. Many wines of comparable quality are produced using similar but distinctly different approaches to their production. Wine quality is mostly dictated by the attributes of the starting material, quality of the grapes, rather than the steps taken during vinification.
 
Variations on the above procedure exist. With sparkling wines such as Champagne, an additional fermentation takes place inside the bottle, trapping carbon dioxide and creating the characteristic bubbles. Sweet wines are made by ensuring that some residual sugar remains after fermentation is completed. This can be done by harvesting late (late harvest wine), freezing the grapes to concentrate the sugar (ice wine), or adding a substance to kill the remaining yeast before fermentation is completed. For example, high proof brandy is added when making port wine. In other cases the winemaker may choose to hold back some of the sweet grape juice and add it to the wine after the fermentation is done, a technique known as süssreserve. The process produces wastewater, pomace, and lees that require collection, treatment, and disposal or beneficial use.
 
To be continued in the next issue…

Source: Wikipedia

Vinnez – December 2010

Bubbly From Beginning to End

More sparkling wine is consumed in December than all the others months combined. Those who only imbibe in the bubbly during this time of year are truly missing out on a great wine experience. And sparkling wine is not just for a toast before dinner. It functions as a great food wine when paired with the right plates.

Sparkling wine – we in the U.S. call it champagne to the chagrin of the French in Champagne – pairs well with shellfish, and seafood with light sauces. Think of sparkling wine as you would crisp white wines such as Sauvignon Blanc or Viognier. The trick is to match the flavors in the wine to the food you are serving. Look to have each complement each other. Some sparkling wines even go great with poultry.

Now, for serving the wine, don’t even think of those open topped glasses you see in old movies. Marie Antoinette’s breast was the model for the design of those glasses. Perhaps sexy to consider but terrible for the wine. Although flute type glasses are favored by some, I often use standard white wine glasses when I do not have enough flutes on hand. They allow you to appreciate the bouquet of the wine while limiting the surface area available for those magical bubbles to escape.

As you plan your parties during the holiday season, try to include sparkling wine in your meal as well as your New Year’s toast. I am sure you’ll enjoy the bubbly even more.

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Champagne – The Sparkling Wine

Champagne is a sparkling wine produced by inducing the in-bottle secondary fermentation of the wine to affect carbonation. It is produced exclusively within the Champagne region of France, from which it takes its name. The primary grapes used in the production of Champagne are Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Pinot Meunier. Through international treaty, national law or quality-control/consumer protection related local regulations, most countries limit the use of the term to only those wines that come from the Champagne appellation.

Champagne first gained world renown because of its association with the anointment of French kings. Royalty from throughout Europe spread the message of the unique sparkling wine from Champagne and its association with luxury and power. The leading manufacturers devoted considerable energy to creating a history and identity for their wine, associating it and themselves with nobility and royalty. Through advertising and packaging they sought to associate Champagne with high luxury, festivities, and rites of passage.

Origins

The Romans were the first to plant vineyards in this area of northeast France with the region being cultivated by at least the 5th century, possibly earlier. Wines from the Champagne region were known before medieval times. Churches owned vineyards and monks produced wine for use in the sacrament of Eucharist. French kings were traditionally anointed in Reims and Champagne wine was served as part of coronation festivities. The Champenois were envious of the reputation of the wines made by their Burgundian neighbours to the south and sought to produce wines of equal acclaim. However, the northerly climate of the region gave the Champenois a unique set of challenges in making red wine. At the far extremes of sustainable viticulture, the grapes would struggle to ripen fully and often would have bracing levels of acidity and low sugar levels. The wines would be lighter bodied and thinner than the Burgundy wines they were seeking to outdo.

Contrary to legend and popular belief, Dom Perignon did not invent sparkling wine. The oldest recorded sparkling wine is Blanquette de Limoux, which was apparently invented by Benedictine Monks in the Abbey of Saint Hilaire near Carcassonne in 1531. Over a century later, the English scientist and physician Christopher Merret documented the addition of sugar to a finished wine to create a second fermentation six years before Dom Perignon set foot in the Abbey of Hautvillers and almost 40 years before it was claimed that the famed Benedictine monk invented Champagne. Merret presented the Royal Society with a paper in which he detailed what is now called méthode champenoise in 1662.

Although Dom Perignon did not invent Champagne, he did develop many advances in production of the drink, including holding the cork in place with a wire collar (muselet) to withstand the fermentation pressure. In France, the first sparkling Champagne was created accidentally; its pressure led it to be called “the devil’s wine” (le vin du diable) as bottles exploded or the cork jolted away. Even when it was deliberately produced as a sparkling wine, Champagne was for a very long time made by the méthode rurale, where the wine was bottled before the only fermentation had finished. Champagne did not utilize the méthode champenoise until the 19th century, approximately 200 years after Christopher Merret documented the process.

In the 19th century Champagne was noticeably sweeter than the Champagne of today. The trend towards drier Champagne began when Perrier-Jouët decided not to sweeten his 1846 vintage prior to exporting it to London. The designation Brut Champagne, the modern Champagne, was created for the British in 1876.

Production

Méthode Champenoise is the traditional method by which Champagne is produced. After primary fermentation and bottling, a second alcoholic fermentation occurs in the bottle. This second fermentation is induced by adding several grams of yeast (usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae, although each brand has its own secret recipe) and several grams of rock sugar. According to the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée a minimum of 1.5 years is required to completely develop all the flavour. For years where the harvest is exceptional, a millesimé is declared and some Champagne will be made from and labeled as the products of a single vintage rather than a blend of multiple years’ harvests. This means that the Champagne will be very good and has to mature for at least 3 years. During both these aging periods, the Champagne bottle is sealed with a crown cap similar to that used on beer bottles.

After ageing, the bottle is manipulated, either manually or mechanically, in a process called remuage, so that the lees settle in the neck of the bottle. After chilling the bottles, the neck is frozen, and the cap removed. The pressure in the bottle forces out the ice containing the lees, and the bottle is quickly corked to maintain the carbon dioxide in solution. Some syrup (le dosage) is added to maintain the level within the bottle.

Pouring Champagne

Pouring sparkling wine while tilting the glass at an angle and gently sliding in the liquid along the side will preserve the most bubbles, as opposed to poured directly down to create a head of “mousse”, according to the study On the Losses of Dissolved CO2 During Champagne Serving. Additionally, colder bottle temperatures result in reduced loss of gas. And the industry is developing champagne glasses designed specifically to reduce the amount of gas lost.
 
Source: Wikipedia

Vinnez – November 2010

Choosing Wine for the Holidays

Vinnez – October 2010

What Drives Wine Prices?

Wine prices are driven by the same factors that set prices for other consumer goods. These include cost of production, the relationship of supply to demand, and perceived value.

Although a Louis Vuitton leather bag costs more to make than a similar “knock off” bag from China, it surely does not cost 30-40 times more. Yes, the leather quality may be better or the stitching might be tighter, but all this does not explain the difference in price. The $1,000 price tag on the bag is a function of the higher costs of making the bag, the relative exclusivity of the bag, and the perceived “luxury” value inherent in owning a Louis Vuitton bag.

You see this same effect in “trophy wines” such as first growth Bordeaux bottles (Chateau Lafite-Rothschild) or exclusive wines from Burgundy (Domaine de la Romanée-Conti) that are aggressively pursued by collectors. Although their prices are in the hundreds to thousands of dollars per bottle, they clearly are not 30 or 40 times better than other wines from the same region.

Yet, there is a minimum cost of production that does set a price level for wine. Most quality bottles of red wine cost from $10 to $15 to produce. Most of the difference from the retail price, $20 to $30, goes to the distributors and retailers. This excludes the cost of vineyard land, profits, etc. When you consider that the bottle, capsule, cork, and label cost at least $2.25, new French oak barrels add about $3.00 per bottle ($1,000+ per barrel), taxes $.40+, and shipping $1.50, it is easy to see how vineyard management and labor can easily push production costs above $10 per bottle.

This is not to say that good wine cannot be made using less expensive techniques. But only a limited number of styles of wines can be made inexpensively. If you want your wine to reflect the place that the grapes are grown, the hand of nature during that vintage year, the love from the vineyard manager in nurturing the best from the vines, and the skill of the winemaker to allow the grapes to fully express themselves, then there is a minimum price for those bottles of wine. Surely that price is not $100 per bottle, but it also cannot be $5.

Cheers.

Sincerely,
 
Barry P. Chaiken, Proprietor
Chaiken Vineyards
info@chaikenvineyards.com
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Wine Barrels

Wine barrels, especially those made of oak, have long been used as containers in which wine is aged. Aging in oak typically imparts desirable vanilla, butter and spice flavors to wine. The size of the barrel plays a large role in determining the effects of oak on the wine by dictating the ratio of surface area to volume of wine with smaller containers having a larger impact. The most common barrels are the Bordeaux barriques style which hold 59 gallons (225 liters) followed by the Burgundy style barrel which hold 60 gallons (228 liters). Some New World wine makers use the large hogshead 79 gallon (300 liter) size.

New barrels impart more flavors than do previously used barrels. Over time many of the oak properties get “leached” out of the barrel with layers of natural deposits left from the wine building up on the wood to where after 3 to 5 vintages there may be little or no oak flavors imparted on the wine.The cost of barrels varies due to the supply and demand market economy and can change with different features that a cooperage may offer. As of late 2007 the price for a standard American oak barrel was $270 USD, French oak $600 USD, and Eastern European $480 USD. Due to the expense of barrels, several techniques have been devised in an attempt to save money. One is to shave the inside of used barrels and insert new thin inner staves that have been toasted.

Barrel Construction

Barrels are constructed in cooperages. The traditional method of European coopers have been to hand split the oak into staves (or strips) along the grain. After the oak is split it is allowed to “season” or dry outdoors while exposed to the elements. This process can take anywhere from 10 to 36 months during which time the harshest tannins from the wood are leached out. These tannins are visible as dark gray and black residue left on the ground once the staves are removed. The longer the wood is allowed to season the softer the potential wine stored in the barrels may be but this can add substantially to the cost of the barrel. In some American cooperage the wood is dried in a kiln instead of outdoor seasoning. While this method is much faster, it doesn’t soften the tannins quite as much as outdoor seasoning.

The staves are then heated, traditionally over an open fire, and when pliable are bent into the shape of the desired barrel and held together with iron rings. Instead of fire, a cooper may use steam to heat up the staves but this tends to impart less “toastiness” and complexity to the resulting wine. Following the traditional, hand worked style a cooper is typically able to construct one barrel in a day’s time. Winemakers can order barrels with the wood on the inside of the barrel having been lightly charred or “toasted” with fire, medium toasted, or heavily toasted.

Typically the “lighter” the toasting the more oak flavor and tannins that are imparted. Heavy toast or “charred” which is typical treatment of barrels in Burgundy wine have an added dimension from the char that medium or light toasted barrels do not impart. Heavy toasting dramatically reduces the coconut note lactones, even in American oak, but create a high carbon content that may reduce the coloring of some wines. During the process of toasting, the furanic aldehydes in the wood reach a higher level of concentration. This produces the “roasted” aroma in the wine. The toasting also enhances the presences of vanillin and the phenol eugenol which creates smokey and spicy notes that in some wines are similar to the aromatics of oil of cloves.

To be continued in the next issue…

 Source: Wikipedia

Vinnez – September 2010

We’re In It Together

In contrast to the glamour associated with winemaking and wine tasting, owning a vineyard is really all about the hard work of farming. If you’ve ever farmed, or just planted a small garden in your backyard, you understand how your fortune is tied to so many things you have no control over.
 
We can’t control when it rains – hopefully not during harvest time – or when a late frost arrives – not during flowering please. So growing grapes, no matter how much we talk about the science of winemaking, is mostly subject to the whims of Mother Nature.
 
As great wine is made in the vineyard and not in the winery, we, as farmers, do the best we can to take care of the grapes. Once you understand that a greater force plays with you every season, you understand the need to join forces with your neighbors to thwart the insults Mother Nature sometimes throws at us.
 
In a relatively short time, vineyard owners become close friends. It makes sense as we are all “in it together.” A disaster in a neighbor’s vineyard one year, may easily be your own disaster the next year. That is why we all help each other any way we can. If your neighbor needs help during harvest, you share what resources you can. If you need a bit more Cabernet Sauvignon juice for your special blend, she makes sure she shares what she has with you.
 
With the Private Vineyard Estates project almost complete, I now have close to 100 new neighbors. I’ve met some of them in person in Mendoza and others virtually through email and phone. Each encounter has been filled with an openness and willingness to share knowledge and experiences. Clearly they all understand what it means to be a farmer.
 
Cheers.

Sincerely,
 
Barry P. Chaiken, Proprietor
Chaiken Vineyards
info@chaikenvineyards.com
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All About Oak

The species of oak typically used for American oak production is the Quercus alba which is a white oak species that is characterized by its relatively fast growth, wider grains and lower wood tannins. It is found in most of the Eastern United States as well as Missouri, Minnesota and Wisconsin where many wine barrels are from. In Oregon the Quercus garryana white oak has started to gain usage due to its closer similarities to European oak.
In France, the main winemaking oak species is the Quercus petraea which is known for tighter grain, high tannins and lower aromatics than its American oak counterpart. French oak typically comes from one or more primary forests: Allier, Limousin, Nevers, Troncais and Vosges. The wood from each of these forests has slightly different characteristics. Many winemakers utilize barrels made from different cooperages, regions and degrees of toasting in blending their wines to enhance the complexity of the resulting wine.
 
The tighter grain of French oak allows for a more gradual integration of flavors in the wine. Italian winemakers have had a long history of using Slavonian oak from the Quercus robur which is known for its tight grain, low aromatics and medium level tannins. Prior to the Russian Revolution, Quercus petraea oak from the Baltic states was the most highly sought after wood for French winemaking. Today Russian oak from the Adygey region along the Black Sea is being explored by French winemakers as a cheaper alternative to French oak. Canadian wineries have been experimenting with the use of Canadian oak, which proponents describe as a middle ground between American and French oak even though it is the same species as American oak.
 
Oak trees are typically between 80-120 years old prior to harvesting with the ideal conditions being a cool climate in a dense forest region that gives the trees opportunity to mature slowly and develop a tighter grain. Typically one tree can provide enough wood for two 59 gallon barrels. The trees are typically harvested in the winter months when there is less sap in the trunk.

Differences in French and American Oak

American oak tends to be more intensely flavoured than French oak with more sweet and vanilla overtones due to the American oak having two to four times as many lactones. Winemakers that prefer American oak typically use them for bold, powerful reds or warm climate Chardonnays. Besides being derived from different species, a major difference between American and French comes from the preparation of the oak. The tighter grain and less watertight nature of French oak encourages coopers to split the wood along the grain rather than saw.
 
French oak is then traditionally aged or “seasoned” for at least two years whereas American coopers will often use a kiln-dry method to season the wood. Long periods of outdoor season has a mellowing effect on the oak that kiln-dry methods have difficulties replicating. The sawing, rather than splitting, of American oak also enhances the differences between the two styles due to the rupture of the xylem cells in the wood which releases many of the vanillin aromatics and lactones responsible for characteristics like the coconut notes.

To be continued in the next issue…
 
Source: Wikipedia